The Atomic Cocktail (Nutrition’s Picture Window)

• 500,000 patients¹ each year are receiving administrations of Radioactive Isotopes tracers to aid in diagnosing all sorts of conditions involving almost every part of the body.
• 1,000 patients¹ are receiving Radioactive Isotope Therapy of intense radiation for treatment of tumors and cancers.
• 2,000 research projects¹ are underway by medical scientists using Radioactive Isotopes to investigate disease processes and metabolic defects.
• “?” Untold numbers of agricultural Radioactive Isotope contributions from fertilizer research, weed killers, trace element studies, mutations, pest eradication, etc, are but a few of the tremendous number of projects affecting farm life.
• 2,050 American² industrial concerns in 1959 were using Radioactive Isotopes. The clothing we wear, the cigarettes we smoke, auto or airplanes we ride in, the paper we read, and many other items have been improved through industrial use of Radioactive Isotopes.

The number and applications and versatility of Radioactive Isotopes (RI) in Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Biology, Dentistry, Oceanography and other sciences no doubt is greater than the total above uses. Among these other sciences is our field of interest–Nutrition. In the main, most nutritional research with RI is carried out under one of the other Sciences. Agriculture, with its plant nutriment tracer studies and its farm animal feeding programs. Industry researches in the nutrition field in food pasteurization, preservation, analyses of residues of insecticides, shipping problems, etc. Oceanography with its study of fish metabolism, sea life in general, and basic and applied research on water itself also covers much of the field of nutrition.

Although the peaceful uses of atomic energy are dwarfed in the public mind by the horrendous example of the bomb, it can be seen by the above summary that these peaceful uses are of great and significant value to mankind. No other one thing since the discovery of the microscope has opened so many doors and windows in science as the use of Isotopes. Yet, the versatility of isotopes in every field of research is so new that it has barely touched the surface of its potential. This bare beginning that started with the discovery of radium in 1898 and had a second beginning in 1934, has already in this short period of time, caused such a stir in the scientific world that 30,000 articles, books and publications on isotope data have been published.

Radium, a naturally occurring radioactive element, was put immediately to use in the medical therapy field and to a limited extent in industry. There are about 50 naturally occurring radioactive elements–uranium is another one familiar to most. The discovery of radiation inducement to stable elements by cyclotron bombardment gave impetus to the development of a wide variety of RI. Thus, 1934 marked the real beginning of complex experiments in Medicine, Chemistry, and other sciences. These studies were somewhat limited by the small quantities that could be produced.

The early 1940’s saw the invention of the nuclear reactor, which created intensities thousands of times those of the accelerators. This made possible low cost production of many RI that were heretofore prohibitive. The first shipment of carbon 14 came out of the Manhattan project for public distribution for the purpose of cancer research on August 2, 1946–just about 20 years ago.

Isotope distribution and administration is today governed by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, established in the late 1940’s. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory with its extensive program of separation of stable isotopes has over 55 such elements now available. This is the source of most U. S. reactor-produced RI. Most users today deal with the commercial firms that reprocess and retail these products to the consumer. As of January 1962, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory made over 157,000 shipments of RI, totaling 1,600,000 curies (equivalent to 1.8 tons of radium). Commercial firms are now making privately owned reactors and are producing RI.

To assure safety, licensing is handled by the Commission. Over 6,600 have been issued. Of these, 2,000 are used by industry in various ways and locations. This means, of course, that the total number of users is much greater. Over 2800 Physicians and medical institutions utilize RI in diagnosis and therapy.

RI are sold by the curie, millicurie, and microcurie. 37 billion disintegration per second is a curie or the same as the radioactivity of 1 gram of radium. They are sold from trace amounts of microcurie to thousands of curies for intense radiation in forms of single compounds or purified sterile ones.

Isotopes that exist in nature or that are made by man exist because the number of neutrons or protons in the atomic nuclei can vary within certain limits. The nuclei of atoms that contain the same number of positively charged protons are the same element. Should the nuclei of a given element have a different number of neutrons they are called Isotopes. These isotopes are identified by the element’s name or symbol, followed by number. This number is the sum of the protons and neutrons. Thus, uranium-238 or U238 is the isotope of uranium.

Isotopes themselves are divided into stable or unstable. Unstable ones are radio-active. This is determined by the number and ratio of the neutrons and protons within the atom. Of the 103 known elements, 80 have at least 1 stable isotope,¹ some have 9 or 10. A total of 279 stable isotopes have been discovered.

RI do not remain unstable forever. Through the emission of their radiation and the loss of energy, the result is a stable atom. The emission of radiation or disintegration of each element is of different rates. This is expressed as half-life. (The time which 1/2 of the atoms in a radioactive substance takes to disintegrate.) These emitted radiations are principally Alpha, Beta, and Gamma rays. Each isotope differs in which one of these particular energies of radiation are emitted during its decay. Some have half-lives, ranging from a millionth of a second, while others are up to trillions of years. Also the energies radiating from the different isotopes vary over a great range, Gamma radiation from some isotopes barely penetrate the thinnest aluminum strip, while other gamma rays can easily penetrate 6 inches of armor plate.

So far, 1305 isotopes² have been identified or produced. Twenty-seven are stable and 1026 radioactive. Over 100 are routinely available from commercial distributors or the AEC. When putting these RI to work in our field of nutrition, one of the most elementary and illuminating examples is that encountered in the study of teeth and bones. The teeth, because of their structure of enamel, cementum, dentine and pulp and because of their location are most revealing. Fifteen or twenty different isotope elements to date have been investigated by dental scientists.

A tooth bathed in an isotope will show penetration of enamel, cementum, and dentine to various depths. When RI are fed by injection to the live animal the element is seen to penetrate the tooth from within via the pulp and the periodontal membrane and from without into the enamel via the saliva. All elements that have so far been tested excepting Gallium, have penetrated the enamel, anywhere from a small amount to as far as the pulp itself. Dr. Harold Hawkins and others in the nutrition field over 35 years ago suggested such chemical interchanges were taking place constantly in teeth. This theory was laughed and frowned upon by most in the medical and dental profession for many years. When the chemistry involved in the use of fluorine topically or internally was demonstrated, it helped to convert the doubters. Now the radio-autographs made through the use of RI have given such a clear picture of this chemical interchange taking place between enamel and dentine and other parts of the tooth that all vestiges of doubt have disappeared.

A fine example of this can be seen on the following two slides by Wainwright,³ showing the radioactive penetration of urea labeled with carbon. The crown of this extracted tooth was bathed in the solution for 5 minutes. It will be noted that a good part of the enamel is penetrated and that in one area the penetration goes also through the dentine and into the pulp of the tooth.

Even more interesting and profound was an experiment by Herbert Bartelston, D. D. S., showing radio Iodine⁴ penetration through intact live cat enamel with uptake through the pulp to the blood stream and the thyroid gland. In this particular case, all but the cuspid teeth were isolated by a rubber dam. The two protruding cuspids were then emersed in radio iodine and a counter placed over the thyroid gland. His slides quite clearly demonstrate the pickup of the radioactive iodine through the enamel of the cuspid, then through the dentine and into the pulp. The blood stream then carried the iodine to the thyroid gland where the geiger counter clearly detected its presence. In these experiments, he used the lower cuspids as controls and under these conditions no count was apparent to the counter at the thyroid gland.

Experiments have shown penetration of tooth structure takes place both from the enamel inward and/or the pulp outward. The following elements have all been tested and all have shown this same penetration: Potassium, Sodium, Hydrogen,⁵ Zinc, Calcium, Silver, Plutonium, Palladium, Copper,⁶ Iodine,⁷ Carbon Nicotinamide, Sulphur Ash Thiourea Carbon-acetamide,^8,9 Phosphorus,¹⁰ Fluorine,¹¹ and Strontium 90.¹² The only substance not penetrating enamel has been the rare earth metal Gallium, which penetrated other parts of the tooth in 6 hours but not the enamel.

It would seem that if all of these substances enter into exchange with the tooth substance, then a good part of the rest of our 103 elements and also the thousands of chemical compounds must also enter into such exchange. It would appear that some day soon Fluorine will be found not nearly as important a caries inhibitor as some of the other elements yet to be studied.

To the dental profession one of the most interesting studies relates to the testing of leakage of dental restorations (fillings). Painting extracted teeth having either new or old restorations has shown that all presently used dental materials leak around the margins. It matters not whether it be a gold foil or inlay, silver amalgam, porcelain, plastic or cement. Before you hasten to chastise the dental profession, it might be well for you to know and realize that well-placed restorations, in spite of isotope demonstrations, actually work. That is, they do not exhibit over long periods recurrent caries and they do save teeth. In other words, this leakage is usually not significant to success except when excessive in poorly placed restorations.

Then too, the picture of these chemical interchanges within hard tooth structure somehow makes understanding of the thousands of individual cell interchanges going on each minute in each human or animal body somewhat more visual. For instance, early studies in 1940 by Walker and shortly thereafter by Campbell and Greenburg¹³ using Radioactive Calcium, a quantitative analysis was made on rats. They found 80% of the dose was absorbed and 67% subsequently excreted in the urine. Of the retained calcium isotopes, the greatest amount was in teeth and bones. Others have stated13 that essentially all bone calcium of young rats was exchangeable with body-fluid calcium. Furthermore, the rate of calcium turnover was increased by Vitamin D administration.

Using radioactive Potassium has shown in 40 hours that exchange rates between isotopes and excreted Potassium to be different for each of the different tissues. It was fairly rapid in muscle, slow in brain and bone, and rapid in viscera.

Iron was found to be more promptly absorbed and in greater amounts in anemic dogs and patients. It was also found that injected iron does not equilibrate with stored iron, but the injected source is more readily available. Smith, et al, (1955)¹³ showed in the infant the persistence of iron derived from its mother. First infant utilization of mother’s iron occurs at 3-4 months. At 2 years, iron from the mother still constituted 40% of the total hemoglobin iron.

The concentration of Iron was found to be 20-30 times higher in human saliva and gastric juice than that of plasma. It was found that iron placed in the small or large intestine was absorbed and re-excreted by the stomach.

Sulphur doses in rats were 95% excreted in the urine and feces in 120 hours. Of the retained Sulphur, higher activity takes place in cartilage, epithelial layer of intestinal tract, aorta, heart valves, cornea, sclera of the eye, fibroblasts and growing fibers of wounds. Low amounts were in the fibrous clot and scab.

Fats have been subjected to testing from as long ago as 1935. Mice on a lose-weight diet that included 1% labeled fat were found to have 47% of the ingested fat deposited in fat depots. A 1956 investigation¹⁴ with rats, detected dietary-fed stearic acid fat in the milk fat after 4 hours. This reached a maximum in 24 hours but was detectable for 37 days. 54% of that administered was recovered in the milk fat. However, results suggested that not more than 25% of the milk fat came from the labeled dietary fat, indicating that the long-chain acids degradation were not the main source of the short-chain acids.

The effect of heat treatment¹⁵ on the availability of Lysine in Rats is of particular interest to you members of the I.C.A.N. It was found that Nitrogen and Tritium excretion through the feces was greater in those rats eating the heated pork than those eating the raw pork. This certainly appears to be one of the tangible visible proofs of the conclusions made by Dr. Francis Pottenger, Jr. in his ten year study of heat treatment factors as related to the life of cats.¹⁷

Food preservation by radiation has been studied for some 10-15 years. Complete sterilization cost is still very high. Radiation doses of 2-6 million roentgens are necessary. At this dosage food often becomes distasteful. Also, not only are microbes killed completely but enzymes are destroyed.¹⁶

It is thought that to be successful radiation will have to be used with conventional heating and freezing methods. Pasteurization dosages which destroy most but not all microbes requires but 5% of the above dosages.

In February 1963, the Food and Drug administration cleared for human consumption the use of radiation sterilized bacon. Also, wheat and wheat products have been approved, as has radiation of potatoes to prevent sprouting. Petitions are now pending for the approval of the following products: Potatoes, oranges, lemons, flexible packaging materials, peaches, nectarines, carrots, shrimp, haddock, flounder, and cod.

A number of mobile units to carry out such irradiation have been completed. These units utilize 150,000 curies of cobalt 60 and have production capacity up to 2,000 pounds per hour of fruits. Being mobile they can be used from place to place and on shipboard. Units of twice this radiation capacity have now been completed.

A following quote from E. E. Fowler, Deputy Director of the A.E.C. might be in order: “Ultimate success in the radiation pasteurization of food is dependent on consumer education, on a willingness to accept the final product, and on the establishment of commercial radiation facilities.” To instigate the success of this, a four-point program which includes consumer education is being carried out. On the surface all of this appears to be plausible and acceptable. However, when we consider radiation’s ability to kill enzymes, some vitamins, to kill cells, and cause mutations, some personal concern is felt that we will eventually find serious biochemical metabolic problems in use of radiated foods. Certainly this activity is one that I.C.A.N. members and all others interested in biochemistry and the broad concept of nutritional processes should take direct personal concern and interest in investigating. We should not jump to the conclusion that such radiation is detrimental, but on the other hand, we should do everything we can to establish validity if there is this doubt.

These are just a few of the studies in this vast field of Isotope research. Related in many ways are the corresponding efforts being made in Agriculture. Early researchers felt that 10-12% of the Phosphorous was taken up in the plant during the first year of growth. The rest was supposedly locked in or washed away. Using radioactive P-32 it was found that 50-70% of Phosphorous in the plant came from the fertilizer during the first two or three weeks of growth.

Foliage of plants, it has been shown, absorb some nutrients as much as do roots. With tracers, it was discovered that the utilization of many nutrients takes place not only in the foliage but includes the bark of dormant trees even at below freezing temperatures. It has been demonstrated that Phosphorous, Nitrogen, and Potassium move up or down in the plant depending on its application point. Urea is a reported spray for many fruit and vegetable crops because of this fact.

It has been demonstrated that uniform placement of fertilizers¹⁶ did not produce the most beneficial growth. When placed below seeds, roots reached the fertilizer quickly but tended to congregate in the area. When fertilizer was placed below and to the side of the roots, the root system spread better. Radioactive Phosphorous spread from roots to foliage in as short a time as 20 minutes.

Tracer experiments indicate roots do not distinguish well between available elements. They will absorb, for instance, Potassium and other similar elements even though they need large amounts of Potassium but do not need the other elements.

Photosynthesis experiments time-wise have been narrowed from hours to minutes and even seconds. A green leaf has been shown to form sugar more complex than fructose after exposure to light for only one second.¹⁶

Efficiency of rations to animals is rapidly improving. For instance, a cow loses more calcium through milk and excreta during the first six months of milk production than her ration contains. It was thought that 2% of the ration’s calcium was digestible. With tracers it was found to be 38%. Milk phosphorous contains 20% that comes from the feed and 80% that comes from the cow’s bones. With eggs, 65% of phosphorous is provided by the food; 35% by the hen.

Thyroid activity increases with the onset of milk and egg production and decreases with diminished production. Female hormones in very small amounts accelerate cattle and sheep fattening. Tranquilizers for animals during shipping [are] being studied as a weight loss preventative. Animal diseases are reported to cost 21/2 billion dollars yearly. Many of these drugs portend real problems to the eating public. Though testing with isotopes is proving a tremendous asset, it will take years of painstaking research to clarify the safety of many of the programs so readily accepted today.

Insects have been lighted up with tracers. Mosquitoes in Canada were traced as far as seven miles–most being within ⅛ mile. Grasshoppers moved 21 feet per hour but have no ability to move toward food. Pollen distribution in the case of alfalfa was carried 30 feet by bees but ⅓ of the total was deposited in the adjacent plants.

Insect destruction by indiscriminate use of pesticides has been of concern to many. Tracer tagging makes it comparatively easy to identify predators which consume them. Unwanted aphids, mosquitoes, black flies, and roaches have been the targets of such studies. The screw worm fly eradication program for the southeastern part of the U. S. has created national interest. Using Gamma rays from Cobalt 60 in proper dosages, large numbers of these flies were sterilized. The longevity, mating and behavior of the emerging flies is not appreciably affected. In an 18 month program, 3 billion flies were produced and distributed over 70 thousand square miles by a fleet of 20 airplanes. These flies, because of their sterility, mate with the existing ones in the area and because they do not produce offspring, eventually the species is eradicated. This was actually achieved early in 1959.

Radiation, we all know, produces mutations in plants and animals. While such mutations are usually hereditarily harmful, a small percentage are beneficial. Though such changes cannot be controlled or predicted–to date 14 new strains of crop plants improved by radiation have been put into production. The next slide lists them as follows:

Radiation Improved Crops

1. PRIMEX white mustard, Sweden, 1950
2. CHLORINA MUTANT tobacco, Indonesia, about 1950
3. SHAFER’S UNIVERSAL bean, Germany, about 1950
4. REGINA II summer oil rape, Sweden, 1953
5. WEIBULL STRALART fodder pea, Sweden, 1957
6. SANILAC navy bean, Michigan, 1957
7. PALLAS Barley, Sweden, 1958
8. N.C. 4X peanut, North Carolina, 1959
9. FLORAD oats, Florida, 1960
10. SEAWAY Bean, Michigan, 1960
11. ALAMO-X oats, Texas, 1961
12. GRATIOT bean, Michigan, 1963
13. PENNRAD barley, Pennsylvania, 1963
14. YUKON-L carnation, Connecticut, 1963

Industrial uses of Radiation are for the most part less hazardous to man. Industry has adopted radiation use in a wide variety of ways. These basically are in four divisions: 1) Tracer Studies, 2) Measurement, 3) Material Modification, 4) Power Generation.

Tracer Studies: Tracer studies are often conducted with extremely small amounts. Incredible dilutions give fantastic visual pictures. Petroleum companies flow as many as 20 different products in the same pipe line at the same time over hundreds of miles. As each new item is introduced to the line, a small amount of Isotope goes with it. At the proper terminus a detecting apparatus sees the isotope and a proper diversion of the product flowing through the line is made. Likewise, flow rates in condenser manifolds, rivers and streams, refineries, oil wells and underground water flow are a few such usages. Leaks in oil and water lines, cables, etc., are similarly determined. Needless to say, the money saved by flow tracers is tremendous.

Wear measurement investigations have been made for 15 years. Wear surfaces are exposed to neutron activation. The material worn off is then collected and by measuring its radioactivity, results are obtainable in a few hours, in what otherwise would take months.

Cylinder blocks and small engines, metal hardness requirements, effects of coolants, temperature, dirt, fuel, and cutting tools efficiency are all improved today by such tools. Analytical procedures, both qualitative and quantitative, are in active use. Portland cement materials need accurate control of raw materials at the quarry and at the plants for rough blending, for storing, for kiln output, and most particularly for magnesium allowable limits. The methods are applicable when large numbers of samples and data need analysis. 1,000 sample lots are currently being tested using the dual help of computers.

Radiation Measurements: Material thickness, density, atomic structures all alter radiation by reduction of intensity. Thus, measurement can be derived by these differences gauging and controlling thicknesses and density monitoring contents of packages and cans and gauging liquid levels. Airlines radiographically inspect landing gears, wing spars, fuselages, and propellers to achieve public safety. Marine contractors radiograph 7-10,000 welds in a single hull. Pipe lines hundreds of miles long, likewise picture each and every weld along the way. 470 companies are now licensed to use such techniques.

Over 8,000 different types of thickness gauges are used by industry, tire manufacturers, primary metal industry, foam rubber, ore slurries, fat content of food staffs, acid concentration in processing and aluminum processing are some examples.

Material Modification By Radiation: Radiation can cause powerful chemical processing changes. Inert plastics such as Fluoro-carbons can be caused to form bonds and thus be grafted to other plastics to combined desirable properties. It can simultaneously vulcanize rubber and polymerize plastic monomers to form new materials having unusual properties. Irradiated plastics often will resist high temperatures and chemical agents such as detergents, oils, acids, and alcohols that otherwise would affect it if non-irradiated.

One of these is a new food wrapping material made by cross-linking polyethylene film with an electron beam from a machine accelerator. The resulting film is transparent and can be shrunk tightly around an object such as apples, or other fruit. It prevents bruising but permits breathing. Meat and poultry are widely packaged in this way also.

Another interesting use to improve physical properties is a natural wood and plastic combination. Sugar maple hard wood treated with vinyl acetate increases about 40% in weight and about 300% in hardness. Also, 80% decreases in water absorption and 50-75% increase in elasticity.

One more common area of radiation change of materials is by luminescence. Radium watch dials were, of course, the earliest example of this type. Now phosphors in a wide array of colors are available and are being used extensively.

Power Generation: Isotope sources of power depend on the fact that large quantities of heat are given off by radioisotopes. This heat is easily converted to electricity.

On June 29, 1961 the transit satellite went into orbit. It emits a radio-frequency signal produced by two signal generators powered by Plutonium-238. This signal enables a ship at sea having proper equipment to obtain its position anywhere in the world and all within a tenth of a mile in accuracy.

Another type unit is beaming weather information as to wind velocity, temperature, barometric pressure every 3 hours from the Canadian Arctic.

Harnessing the atom for the benefit of mankind, though still in its cradle, is a challenge widely accepted.

137 Individual radioisotopes are available from the AEC.
2.1 million curies have been distributed in the sixteen years up to 1/1/63.
1 million of these curies were distributed in 1961-1962.
20-30 million Market for radioisotopes in 1962.
2-3 million sales of teletherapy units by seven U. S. manufacturers occur yearly.
15-20 million is the market for radiographic equipment and commercial radiation services.

Nuclear energy is performing a most outstanding role. For peoples everywhere, it is the 10th wonder of the world. It is like discovering fire or the microscope all over again. As with all great discoveries, the gifts they bring are only realized by the efforts of responsible citizens made in harnessing and utilizing their powers. Such opportunities challenge the International College of Applied Nutrition and its members, collectively and individually. Atomic energy can be the means of awakening the public to the necessity and importance of good nutritional practice.

 

References Cited:

1. U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., Special sources of information on isotopes in Industry, Agriculture, Medicine, and Research.
2. Radio Isotopes–Profitable New Tools for Industry, by Paul C. Aebersold, Ph.D. U.S. Atomic Energy Comm.
3. Wainright, Wm. Ward & Lemoine, F. A. J.A.D.A. Pages 135-145, August 1950.
4. Bartlestone, H., Res., October 1951.
5. Sognnaes, Am. Physiology, 180; 408, 1955.
6. Wainright, J.A.D.A., Dec. 1951.
7. Wainright, J.A.D.A., April 1952.
8. Wainright, J.D.R., Vol. 33, No. 6, Dec. 1954.
9. Wainright, J.D.R., Vol. 34, No. 1, Feb. 1955.
10. Burstone, J.A.D.A., July 1950.
11. Ericson, Ullbert, Royal Dental School, Stockholm.
12. Cleall, Fonts, Dale, N.Y. State Dental Journal, Dec. 1962.
13. Bounee, G. H., World Review of Nutr. & Dietetics, Putnam Med. Pub. Co., 1959.
14.  Glascock, et al (1956), Biochemistry J. 62, 535.
15. Miller, D. S., & Bender, A. E., 1955, Brit. J. Nutr. 9, 382.
16. Atoms in Agriculture, Atomic Energy Comm.
17. Pottenger, Francis Jr., Am. J. of Orthodontics & Surgery, Vol 32, No. 8, 467 485, Aug. 1946.